Interpahse includes the G1, S, and G2 phases of the cell cycle. Cells in interpase grow and undergo the various metabolic processes needed for their functioning during G1, S, and G2. Mitosis has 4 major stages -Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase. During interphase, DNA replication occurs. After duplication the cell is ready to begin mitosis.
Kinetochores are the protein area of the centromere on each sister chromatid. The centromere is the area where both the sister chromatids contact one another. There are two kinetochores for each chromosome. -the cell has a circular shape Metaphase -mitotic spindle has moved chromosomes to the middle of the cell -**chromosomes are
Each genome contains the information needed to maintain and create the organism. The process of genetic engineering involves extracting of a small piece of cellular DNA, called a plasmid, from the bacteria if organism involved in the manipulation. A very small section of the circular plasmid is then cut out by the restriction enzymes which act as molecular scissors. The gene from the organism being modified is then inserted into this space and the plasmid is therefore modified. The genetically modified plasmid is now inserted and introduces into a new organism which starts divides rapidly.
Transgenesis and Cloning Transgenesis is the process of inserting a gene from one source into a living organism that would not normally contain the inserted gene. The gene can come from the same species (called Cisgenesis) or from a different species entirely. To facilitate the transfer of genes from one organism to another, often a Transgenic Organism with Recombinant DNA is created: -The first step in creating an organism capable of carrying out the transformation process is to isolate the required gene. This is done so using Restriction Enzymes, which target a specific gene sequence. The gene is often cut with staggered ends, called “Sticky Ends” which only allow specific and complementary gene sequences bond by base pairing.
The enzyme used in this step is unique to the mitochondria and therefore can be used as a marker for the presence of mitochondrial contamination in a sample of cell fraction. We can use cellular fractionation to separate the cellular components and test them for the presence of certain enzymes or chemicals (Hames). Cellular fractionation involves two steps. Firsty, we must lyse the cells from a homogenous cell population to obtain a homogenate of subcellular components. Since different cellular components vary in size and weight, we can centrifuge them at different speeds and durations to obtain pellets containing these cell fractions (Ardell).
The new viral RNA serves as blueprint. Other enzymes use it to produce proteins that will become new virus capsules. (5) An enzyme called protease cuts the long, unmilled proteins into shorter piece, which clip together to form new capsule. (6) The completed capsule bud from the surface of the cell. AIDS AS A CONCERN FOR
Describe the structure and function of each of the eukaryotic organelles. ”A eukaryotic cell is sectioned by internal membranes into different functioning categories called organelles. For example, the nucleus houses DNA, the genetic component that controls the cells activities. (Boundless. “Introduction” Boundless Biology).
Describe each process (including differences between bacteria and eukaryotes) and explain the significance of the differences between replication and transcription When first going through DNA replication, the two strands of double helix unwind. Each strand is an outline for the formation of a new, complementary strand. DNA helicase enzymes hang along the DNA molecule, opening the double helix as they move. Once the strands are separated, helix-destabilizing proteins bind to single DNA strands, preventing re-formation of the double helix until the strands are copied. Enzymes called topoisomerases produce breaks in the DNA molecules and then reconnect the strands, relieving strain and effectively preventing tangling and knotting during replication.
During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference, however, is that prokaryotic RNA polymerase associates with mRNA-processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed quickly after the start of transcription. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed, product is termed pre-mRNA; once completely processed, it is termed mature mRNA. [edit] Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processingMain article: Post-transcriptional modification Processing of mRNA differs greatly among eukaryotes, bacteria, and archea.
Meiosis is a type of cell division required for sexual reproduction and produces gametes or spores. During Meiosis I, DNA replication occurs and chromosomes line up on the equator as a homologous pair known as chromatids. At the first stage of Meiosis, Prophase I, DNA of individual chromosomes coils more and more tightly, known as DNA condensation. Sister chromatids then attach to specific sites on the nuclear envelope to bring the homologous pair of chromosomes close together. The sister chromatids line up so they can pair up with its corresponding "sister gene" on the homologous chromosome.